https://doi.org/10.1140/epjs/s11734-025-01930-3
Regular Article
Rate-of-injection-based Lagrangian–Eulerian modeling of spray–wall interaction in a gasoline direct injection system under non-flashing conditions
1
Engines and Unconventional Fuels Laboratory, Department of Energy Science and Engineering, IIT Delhi, 110016, New Delhi, India
2
Convergent Science India, 411045, Pune, Maharashtra, India
Received:
8
July
2025
Accepted:
5
September
2025
Published online:
19
September
2025
The recent developments in gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine technology are looking into engine downsizing and an increase in injection pressures to 30 MPa or higher. The motivations behind these trends are achieving higher engine efficiency and lower emissions. However, these advancements also present significant challenges, particularly spray impingement on the piston wall, known as spray–wall interaction (SWI), which leads to fuel film formation and adverse effects on engine performance. A validated SWI model was developed in the CONVERGE computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code under Engine Combustion Network (ECN) ‘Spray G’ conditions using a Lagrangian–Eulerian spray approach. The low contrast of experimental Mie-scattering images of available data limits the scope of CFD model validation in the liquid phase. Within 1 ms after the start of injection (SOI), the maximum deviations between the numerical predictions and experimental results in the liquid phase were 19.6% for the horizontal spread of spray parcels and 24.6% for the vertical spread of spray parcels. In contrast, the CFD model strongly agreed with experimental data of vapor phase distribution. Within 1 ms of simulation time, the maximum deviations between the simulated and experimental results in the vapor phase were 11.3% for the horizontal spread and 5.6% for the vertical spread. Following the validation, the CFD results showed that at a high chamber pressure of 0.6 MPa, the influence of chamber gas and wall temperature on macroscopic SWI characteristics in both liquid and vapor phases was minimal, consistent with the experimental results. However, the CFD results indicate that chamber gas and wall temperatures have a significant impact on microscopic SWI characteristics, including film height, SWI regimes, and parcel size distribution—an aspect not examined in the experimental study. The Leidenfrost effect was observed within the chamber gas and wall temperature range of 473–573 K, where the film height reached its minimum at 493 K, but at 573 K, a comparatively higher film height was observed. Additionally, film height increases with increasing injection pressure up to 1 ms time after the start of injection (TASOI), beyond which it decreases with further increases in injection pressure.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1140/epjs/s11734-025-01930-3.
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Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
