https://doi.org/10.1140/epjs/s11734-026-02185-2
Regular Article
From lasers to photon Bose–Einstein condensates: a unified description via an open-dissipative Bose–Einstein distribution
Department of Physics and Research Center OPTIMAS, University Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger Straße 46, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
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Received:
7
October
2025
Accepted:
2
February
2026
Published online:
9
March
2026
Abstract
Photon condensation was first experimentally realized in 2010 within a dye-filled microcavity at room temperature. Since then, interest in the field has increased significantly, as a photon Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) represents a prototypical driven-dissipative system. Here, we investigate how its inherent open nature influences the condensation process both quantitatively and qualitatively. To this end, we consider a mean-field model, which can be derived microscopically from a Lindblad master equation. The underlying rate equations depend on various external parameters such as emission and absorption rates of the dye molecules as well as the cavity photon loss rate. In steady state, we obtain an open-dissipative Bose-Einstein distribution for the mode occupations. The chemical potential of this distribution depends on the occupations of the dye molecules in both their ground and excited state and must therefore be determined self-consistently. We find that the resulting photon distribution is strongly influenced by the driven-dissipative parameters. Based on this result, we identify the main differences between a photonic BEC, an atomic BEC, and a laser.
© The Author(s) 2026
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